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People
Averroes
Averroes, also known as Ibn Rushd, was a prominent Muslim philosopher and jurist in the medieval period. Born in Cordoba, Spain, in 1126, Averroes came from a distinguished family of jurists—both his grandfather and father served as a qadi (chief judge) in Seville and Cordoba. He was known for his expertise in various fields such as law, philosophy, theology, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and theology. Averroes i
PeopleAverroes
Averroes points out that reason has its own lawful authority alongside revelation, and that coercion has no claim over truth. He defended reason against Al Ghazali's insistence on the legitimacy of mysticism as a way of knowing. By arguing that free inquiry is not a threat to order but a condition of justice, Averroes advances a lasting principle for free societies: power loses legitimacy when it forbids rational examination.
PeopleMaimonides
Maimonides advocates law disciplined by reason, arguing that obedience is ennobling only when it educates conscience rather than enforces submission. Like Averroes, he considered philosophy and religion to be harmonious, not contradictory. By reconciling revelation with rational inquiry and codifying law to restrain arbitrariness, he advances a durable principle for free societies: authority is legitimate only when it teaches responsibility and self-government.
PeopleThomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas (around 1225–1274 CE) was a Dominican friar and one of the most influential thinkers of the Middle Ages. Born into a noble family near Aquino in Italy, he surprised everyone by choosing a simple, devoted life with the Dominicans, despite his family’s objections.
Periods
Books & Works
Commentary on Plato’s Republic
Averroës, 1126–1198 · 1956 · Commentary on Plato’s Republic. Edited with introduction and notes by E. I. J. Rosenthal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956.
Books & WorksDestructio Destructionum Philosophiae Algazelis
Averroës, 1126–1198 · 1961 · Destructio destructionum philosophiae Algazelis. Edited by Beatrice H. Zedler. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1961.
Books & WorksTahafut al-Tahafut
Averroës, 1126–1198 · 1954 · Tahafut al-tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence). Translated by Simon van den Bergh. London: Luzac, 1954.