Hammurabi Code

Biography and intellectual context

Rediscovered: 1901 (excavated at Susa by Jacques de Morgan)

Publicly Displayed: ca. 18th century BCE in Babylonian temples

Early Law Code: One of the first major codified legal systems.

Lex Talionis: Established the principle of proportional justice (“an eye for an eye”).

Social Order: Defined laws for daily life and clear class distinctions.

Legal Legacy: Influenced later legal traditions, including Biblical and Roman law.

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The Hammurabi Code is one of the oldest known written legal codes, originating in ancient Mesopotamia during the reign of King Hammurabi of Babylon (ca. 1792–1750 BCE). It was inscribed on a basalt stele and placed in public view, signifying both the authority of the king and the transparency of law. This comprehensive legal text outlines 282 laws dealing with civil, criminal, commercial, and family matters. The prologue and epilogue emphasize Hammurabi’s divine right to rule and his duty to uphold justice. The code provides a window into Babylonian society, its class divisions, gender roles, and theological underpinnings. Discovered in 1901 at Susa (modern Iran), the code is now housed in the Louvre Museum. It remains a cornerstone for understanding ancient jurisprudence and governance.

Hammurabi was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, best known for expanding Babylon throughout the whole of Mesopotamia. Reigning from around 1792 to 1750 BCE, Hammurabi undertook a series of public works projects while consolidating the city-states of Mesopotamia. Uniquely, Hammurabi was honored as a god while still living, leading to his celebration as a conqueror and lawgiver throughout ancient Sumer. The Code of Hammurabi remained celebrated in popular culture even before archaeological discovery.

First major codified set of laws in history

Features the famous principle of lex talionis (“an eye for an eye”)

Contains laws on marriage, contracts, wages, slavery, theft, and injury

Clearly outlines legal distinctions between free men, commoners, and slaves

Influenced later legal systems, including Biblical law and Roman jurisprudence

• “To cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil…”

Establishes the divine and moral purpose behind the code.

• “If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.” (Law 196)

A clear example of lex talionis, emphasizing equal revenge.

• “If a builder builds a house and it collapses, killing the owner, the builder shall be put to death.” (Law 229)

Demonstrates legal responsibility and liability—an early form of building codes.

The 282 laws are grouped by topic and legal area:

Prologue – Declares Hammurabi’s divine authority from Shamash, the god of justice

Laws 1–5: Legal procedure and perjury

Laws 6–25: Theft, robbery, and economic crime

Laws 26–41: Military service and property rights

Laws 42–88: Agriculture, irrigation, and commerce

Laws 89–126: Business practices and loans

Laws 127–195: Family law: marriage, divorce, paternity, inheritance

Laws 196–214: Bodily injury and medical malpractice

Laws 215–282: Labor law and slavery

Epilogue – Praises Hammurabi’s justice and warns future kings not to alter his words

Legal History: Considered the foundation of modern legal codes

Cultural Symbol: A marker of civilization and law-based governance

Comparative Studies: Regularly analyzed alongside the Mosaic Law

Scholarly Debate: Questions remain about its use—was it practiced law or ideological monument?

Museums and Education: Featured in legal, historical, and ethical curricula worldwide

The code reflects a society structured by divine kingship, class hierarchy, and religious legitimacy. Justice was seen as a god-given order, and law was administered to preserve cosmic balance (ma’at in Egyptian terms, though Mesopotamian equivalents existed).

Influences and parallels:

Earlier Sumerian codes (e.g., Ur-Nammu, Lipit-Ishtar)

Later Hebrew law in the Torah (Exodus 20–23; Leviticus)

Roman legal thought (jus civile vs. jus gentium)

Enlightenment-era concepts of rule of law and codification (e.g., Napoleonic Code)

1901: Stele unearthed in Susa, Iran by Jacques de Morgan

1902: Louvre Museum acquires and displays the Code of Hammurabi

2003: Included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register

2006–Present: Required reading in legal theory and ancient history courses (Harvard Law, Yale, LSE)

Ongoing: Referenced in debates on ancient justice, human rights, and legal universal

Secondary Literature (Scholarship)

Roth, Martha T. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Scholars Press, 1997. ISBN: 9781589832652

Driver, G.R., and Miles, J.C. The Babylonian Laws. Oxford University Press, 1952.

Meek, Theophile J. The Code of Hammurabi. Translated edition, University of Chicago Press.

Van De Mieroop, Marc. King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell, 2005. ISBN: 9781405126591

Archival or Online Sources

(“Code of Hammurabi: Laws & Facts | HISTORY.” Photograph, 2000s.)

A close-up texture of dark stone inscribed with dense columns of cuneiform script, showing wear, scratches, and small holes.

A stone relief at the top of a stele showing two figures: a standing man in a robe facing a seated deity with a horned crown, extending a rod.

(“Hammurabi Code, Babylonian legal stele composed during 1755–1750 BC…” Photograph, 2020s)

A composite image: left side shows close-up cuneiform text on dark stone; right side depicts the full tall stele with relief at top and inscriptions below.

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